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The Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It
was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and
the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This
dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as first discernment
of true north using a compass.
The Song Dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and
the Southern Song. During the Northern Song (Chinese:
北宋, 960–1127), the Song
capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty
controlled most of inner China. The Southern Song (Chinese:
南宋, 1127–1279)
refers to the period after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jin
Dynasty. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze River
and established their capital at Lin'an (now Hangzhou). Although the Song
Dynasty had lost control of the traditional birthplace of Chinese civilization
along the Yellow River, the Song economy was not in ruins, as the Southern Song
Empire contained 60 percent of China's population and a majority of the most
productive agricultural land. The Southern Song Dynasty considerably
bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to
conduct maritime missions abroad.
To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new
military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder. In 1234, the Jin Dynasty
was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining
uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan
of the Mongol Empire, died in 1259 while besieging a city in Chongqing. His
younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim
was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan
was proclaimed the Emperor of China. After two decades of sporadic warfare,
Kublai Khan's armies conquered the Song Dynasty in 1279. China was once again
unified, under the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368).
The population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. This
growth came through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, the
use of early-ripening rice from southeast and southern Asia, and the production
of abundant food surpluses. The Northern Song census recorded a population
of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and Tang dynasties. This data is found
in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a
population of some 100 million people, and 200 million by the time of the Ming
Dynasty.[6] This dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution
in premodern China. The expansion of the population was partially the cause for
the gradual withdrawal of the central government from heavily regulating the
market economy. A much larger populace also increased the importance of the
lower gentry's role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed
officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the scholarly gentry for
their services, sponsorship, and local supervision.
Social life during the Song was vibrant; social elites gathered to view and
trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and
private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of
literature and knowledge was enhanced by the earlier invention of woodblock
printing and the 11th-century invention of movable type printing. Pre-modern
technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, engineering, and other
intellectual pursuits flourished over the course of the Song. Philosophers such
as Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused
with Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that
brought out the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism. Although the institution of
the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui Dynasty, it became much
more prominent in the Song period. This became a leading factor in the shift of
an aristocratic elite to a bureaucratic elite.
The Song Dynasty - Society and culture
Civil service examinations
The Gentry Arts, literature,
and philosophy Military and methods of warfare
The Song Dynasty - Economy, industry, and trade
The Song Dynasty - Technology, science, and engineering
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